https://doi.org/10.1038/520609a. But only a few of them actually make it up to clinical trials. Booksc.eu. Here, we compile the recently identified cell surface protein markers for detection of CTCs in different cancer types (Table 2). Sensors (Basel). Nanotechnology 1. This process is known as neovascularization. Cancer biomarkers may be proteins (secreted proteins or cell surface proteins) [15], carbohydrates [16], or nucleic acids (circulating tumor DNA, miRNA, etc.) According to the American Cancer Society, the number of new cases is anticipated to be 1.9 million by the end of the year 2021 [4]. Surgical resection continues to be the most effective therapeutic approach for ovarian cancers (Smitt and Horst, 2007). NPs used extensively in drug delivery systems include organic NPs, inorganic NPs, and hybrid NPs (Fig. Mehra, R.; Tomlins, S. A.; Yu, J.; Cao, X.; Wang, L.; Menon, A.; Rubin, M. A.; Pienta, K. J.; Shah, R. B.; Chinnaiyan, A. M., CANCER RES, (2008) 68, 3584. There are various mechanisms by which active targeting takes place. The HSP90 inhibitor in 17AAG loaded NPs has dramatically improved MDR in bladder cancer treatment [147]. AMG 211 was labeled with zirconium-89 (89Zr) or a fluorescent dye to evaluate its tumor-targeting properties. Another alternative method is to target cells adjacent to cancer cells, such as angiogenic endothelial cells. Matsumura, Y.; Maeda, H., CANCER RES, (1986) 46, 6387. For example, breast cancer exhibits a 5-year relative survival rate of nearly 90% at the local stage, while patients with distant metastasis exhibit a 5-year survival rate of only 27% [4]. CELL. Retrieved July 29, 2021, from https://doi.org/10.1111/jphp.13098, Pelicano H, Martin DS, Xu RH, Huang P (2006) Glycolysis inhibition for anticancer treatment. These are spherical vesicles comprising phospholipids that may be either uni-lamellar or multi-lamellar to encapsulate drug molecules [72]. Sci Rep 6:35267. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep35267, Singh SK, Lillard JW Jr, Singh R (2018) Reversal of drug resistance by planetary ball milled (PBM) nanoparticle loaded with resveratrol and docetaxel in prostate cancer. Paclitaxel has shown great potency against a broad range of cancers. Doria, G.; Conde, J.; Veigas, B.; Giestas, L.; Almeida, C.; Assuncao, M.; Rosa, J.; Baptista, P. V., Sensors (Basel), (2012) 12, 1657. Biomaterials 28(31):47174732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2010.03.011, Bates DO, Hillman NJ, Williams B, Neal CR, Pocock TM (2002) Regulation of microvascular permeability by vascular endothelial growth factors. For CTC detection, immunomagnetic technologies usually specifically target EpCAM-expressing CTCs with anti-EpCAM functionalized MNPs. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.200700022, Omidi Y, Barar J (2014) Targeting tumor microenvironment: crossing tumor interstitial fluid by multifunctional nanomedicines. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2007.07.014, Bagalkot V, Zhang L, Levy-Nissenbaum E, Jon S, Kantoff PW, Langer R, Farokhzad OC (2007) Quantum dot-aptamer conjugates for synchronous cancer imaging, therapy, and sensing of drug delivery based on bi-fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Rezaianzadeh A, Jalali M, Maghsoudi A, Mokhtari AM, Azgomi SH, Dehghani SL. CAS https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2012.02.010, Chua KJ, Chou SK, Ho JC (2007) An analytical study on the thermal effects of cryosurgery on selective cell destruction. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2012.09.037, Zhang L, Gu FX, Chan JM, Wang AZ, Langer RS, Farokhzad OC (2008) Nanoparticles in medicine: therapeutic applications and developments. TAS3RS can be used to detect microscopic residual tumors during surgery [107]. They have been extensively used in immunotherapy. https://doi.org/10.2174/0929867324666170830113755, Li W, Zhang H, Assaraf YG, Zhao K, Xu X, Xie J, Yang DH, Chen ZS (2016) Overcoming ABC transporter-mediated multidrug resistance: molecular mechanisms and novel therapeutic drug strategies. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2008.09.039, Hoopes PJ, Moodie KL, Petryk AA, Petryk JD, Sechrist S, Gladstone DJ, Steinmetz NF, Veliz FA, Bursey AA, Wagner RJ, Rajan A, Dugat D, Crary-Burney M, Fiering SN (2017) Hypo-fractionated radiation, magnetic nanoparticle hyperthermia and a viral immunotherapy treatment of spontaneous canine cancer. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri.2018.4, Rosenberg SA, Restifo NP, Yang JC, Morgan RA, Dudley ME (2008) Adoptive cell transfer: a clinical path to effective cancer immunotherapy. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.clpt.6100400, Wang X, Liu X, Li Y, Wang P, Feng X, Liu Q, Yan F, Zheng H (2017) Sensitivity to antitubulin chemotherapeutics is potentiated by a photoactivable nanoliposome. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-014-0214-0, Du M, Yang Z, Lu W, Wang B, Wang Q, Chen Z, Chen L, Han S, Cai T, Cai Y (2020) Design and development of spirulina polysaccharide-loaded nanoemulsions with improved the antitumor effects of paclitaxel. The platform has 3 different functional components: (1) complementary DNA strands, (2) gold nanorods (NRs) (50 nm 10 nm), and (3) a polyethylene glycol (PEG) layer. Antibody-functionalized MNPs, namely, immunomagnetic nanoparticles, are frequently applied in the biomedical field. It's remarkably efficient, but if damaged from injury or cancer . US-FDA approved this in 1996 [39]. Inhibition of this pathway effectively downregulates the expression of HIF-1, which enhances the sensitivity of MDR cells to cancer treatment [145]. The authors announce no competing of interest. Calcium phosphate NPs is biologically compatible, biodegradable, and do not cause any harsh adverse reactions. For cancer diagnosis, nanoparticles are being applied to capture cancer biomarkers, such as cancer-associated proteins, circulating tumor DNA, circulating tumor cells, and exosomes [9]. Cancers 3(3):28882903. Curr Drug Targets 19(4):300317. 2017;1634:211. Metallic nanoparticles are commonly explored in biological imaging and targeted DDS due to their remarkable optical, magnetic, and photothermal properties. Data available in article supplementary material. The combined method is likely to enhance the function of more platforms to specifically identify CTCs and subpopulations of CTCs. 2018;46:101. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical tubes, most often considered as rolls of graphene, were discovered in the late 1980s. In the fight against cancer, a key for successful cancer treatment is early detection. PEG-modified fullerenes showed promising photodynamic effects on tumor cells [99]. One strand of DNA (called the capture strand), besides being a scaffold to carry the drug, can be used for capturing the gold NRs after being thiolated, and the complementary strand (called the targeting strand) can be used for specifically targeting cells after being preconjugated with ligand. However, tumor cells overexpress FR- (alpha isoform of folate receptor), while FR- is overexpressed in liquid cancer cells [51]. Besides using chemotherapy and kinase inhibitors, novel agents like siRNA, mRNA, and gene editing are central therapeutics used with NPs. Unlike conventional liposomes, SLNs have a micelle-like structure within which the drug is entrapped in a non-aqueous core. To overcome this, NPs with surface modification, such as PEG, bypass this mechanism and increase the drug half-life. Besides, kidney infiltration is a crucial function in the human body. The primary working of nanocryosurgery is introducing NPs with particular properties into the cancer cells and causing freezing [182]. Google Scholar. Detection of genetic aberrations in ctDNA can help detect cancer even before any sign of cancer occurs [40, 41]. Cancer proteomics studies the number of proteins in cancer cells and serum, which supports hunting proteins and biomarkers that aids in diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis [151]. However, there are already several nanocarrier-based drugs on the market and many more nano-based therapeutics in clinical trials. Given their specific structure like defined molecular weight, adjustable branches, bioavailability, and charge, these are used to target nucleic acids. These newly evolved targeted therapies and immunotherapies interfere with signaling pathways that are vital in malignant behaviors and normal homeostatic functions of the epidermis and dermis and cause dermatologic adverse events (dAEs) [13]. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are double-layered phosphor-lipid vesicles ranging from 501000nm n size [67]. Bioimpacts 3(4):149162. https://doi.org/10.2217/nnm.13.140, Liu J, Dong J, Zhang T, Peng Q (2018) Graphene-based nanomaterials and their potentials in advanced drug delivery and cancer therapy. Retrieved July 29, 2021, from https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-biochem-013118-111902, Samad A, Sultana Y, Aqil M (2007) Liposomal drug delivery systems: an update review. This leads to a short half-life of the drug [161]. PubMed Huang Q, Yin W, Chen X, Wang Y, Li Z, Du S, Wang L, Shi C. Nanotheranostics. Dry solid dosage forms are more stable than nanoliquid products [165]. https://doi.org/10.1021/mp3005325, Kukowska-Latallo JF, Candido KA, Cao Z, Nigavekar SS, Majoros IJ, Thomas TP, Baker JR (2005) Nanoparticle targeting of anticancer drug improves therapeutic response in animal model of human epithelial cancer. The brain-blood barrier (BBB) is a specialized protection structure offered to protect the CNS from harmful and toxic agents. Brandon Dixon and Susan Thomas. Only 100 live cancer cells could be detected per mL of blood. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcancer.2020.01.011, Lu B, Xiong SB, Yang H, Yin XD, Chao RB (2006) Solid lipid nanoparticles of mitoxantrone for local injection against breast cancer and its lymph node metastases. A typical liposome structure is composed of a hydrophilic core and a hydrophobic phospholipid bilayer. This unique architecture makes it possible for them to entrap both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs to effectively protect the entrapped drug from environmental degradation in circulation [75]. Lai et al. Acta Med Iran 48(3):133141, Mozafari MR, Reed CJ, Rostron C, Kocum C, Piskin E (2002) Construction of stable anionic liposome-plasmid particles using the heating method: a preliminary investigation. PubMedGoogle Scholar. https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.21270, Yang Q, Jones S, Parker C, Zamboni W, Bear J, Lai S (2014) Evading immune cell uptake and clearance requires PEG grafting at densities substantially exceeding the minimum for brush conformation. Liposomes provide an excellent platform for drug delivery such as doxorubicin, paclitaxel, and nucleic acid as well by demonstrating higher anti-tumor efficacy and enhanced bioavailability [76]. Nanoemulsions are different from liposomes and certainly have enhanced characteristics than others, such as optical clarity, stability, and biodegradability [86]. 2011;331:1559. This review discusses numerous types of nanoparticles, targeting mechanisms, and approved nanotherapeutics for oncological implications in cancer treatment. Besides, they cool down rapidly, and it is feasible to regulate the growth direction and direction of the ice ball (Fig. Zhou W, Gao X, Liu D, Chen X. Chem Rev. PC affects the crosstalk of NP with the biological setting and thereby governs the application and usage of the same in the medical field. This reaction results in forming a tri-acid molecule that further reacts with ethylenediamine to yield tri-amine, a GO product. MicroRNAs are a class of endogenous single-stranded non-coding RNA molecules that control post-transcription gene expression by blocking translation of the target mRNA or repressing protein production by destabilizing mRNA [154]. The advent of targeted therapy has made growth in precision therapy [9]. PubMed Central A sandwich-type assay is a common strategy for detecting protein biomarkers and comprises many components, namely, a biomarker, a capture antibody, a second capture antibody, and a secondary antibody that binds to the capture antibody [7]. Pharm Res 33(10):23732387, Ventola CL (2017) Progress in nanomedicine: approved and investigational nanodrugs. Google Scholar. Xuan, W.; Tingyu, X.; Zhang, L.; Rongxiang, H.; Yiping, C.; Zhenzhong, G.; Weiying, Z.; Yong, C., J NANOBIOTECHNOL, 16, 65. Special Issue "Nanotechnology in Cancer Treatment 3.0" Special Issue Editors Special . To prepare UCNP-Gd-RGD, the amine-functional upconversion nanoparticle core is PEGylated, followed by Gd(3+) DOTA conjugation and RGD labeling. For instance, nanoemulsions loaded with spirulina and paclitaxel showed an improved anti-tumor effect by regulating immunity through TLR4/NF-kB signaling pathways [84]. Gold NPs with anti-EGFR-PEG-AuNPs and anti-IgG-PEG-Au nanoparticles can be used to target the human SCC [48]. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6976.1998.tb00358.x, Allen JD, Brinkhuis RF, van Deemter L, Wijnholds J, Schinkel AH (2000) Extensive contribution of the multidrug transporters P-glycoprotein and Mrp1 to basal drug resistance. NPs are found to have deep tissue penetration to increase enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. For CTC detection, nanomaterials have an essential advantage in their large surface-to-volume ratio, which enables adsorption of high-efficiency targeting ligands with the ability to recognize specific molecules on cancer cells; therefore, CTC isolation shows high specificity and recovery, and the detection sensitivity is enhanced. https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.29681, Semenza GL (2007) Evaluation of HIF-1 inhibitors as anticancer agents. The most widely used imaging techniques, such as X-ray, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), endoscopy, and ultrasound, can only detect cancer when there is a visible change to the tissue [5]. Artificial APCs interact with MHC-antigen complexes directly which binds to T cells. Although there has been much promising progress in nanotechnology-based cancer diagnosis, only a few examples have advanced to clinical trials [108]. 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Omidi Y, Barar J ( 2014 ) targeting tumor microenvironment: crossing tumor interstitial by... A tri-acid molecule that further reacts with ethylenediamine to yield tri-amine, a GO.! Extensively in drug delivery systems include organic NPs, inorganic NPs, photothermal. The brain-blood barrier ( BBB ) is a specialized protection structure offered to protect the CNS harmful...
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